[*] CAPTAIN JEFFERSON D. REYNOLDS IS THE DEPUTY REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL COUNSEL, EASTERN REGION, FOR THE UNITED STATE AIR FORCE, ATLANTA, GEORGIA. J.D., 1990, HAMLINE UNIVERSITY, 1990; LL.M., 1995, GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, 1995. Return to text.

[1] Lake Sagaris, Conspiracy of Silence in Chile's Fields: Pesticide Spraying of Fruit Results in High Levels of Birth Defects, MONTREAL GAZETTE, Nov. 27, 1995, at C2. The article indicates that the most exposed parents in Chile work in the fruit-export industry and that the rise in birth defects coincides with the increase in the import of pesticides in Chile from $4 million to $38 million. See id. Return to text.

[2] The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that in developing countries there is a minimum of one million unintentional and two million intentional cases of acute pesticide poisonings resulting in over 220,000 deaths each year. See Division of Health & Environment et al., Pesticides and Health in the Americas, Envt'l Series No. 12, at 15 (Feb. 1993) [hereinafter Pesticides & Health]. Return to text.

[3] See id. Return to text.

[4] See Food & Agricultural Organization of the U.N., International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticides, U.N. Doc. M/R8130/E/5.86/1/3000 (1986), reprinted in 10 Int'l. Envt. Rep. (BNA) No. 3 at 3002-07 (Mar. 11, 1987) [hereinafter Code of Conduct]. Return to text.

[5] See id. Return to text.

[6] See id. Return to text.

[7] See id. Return to text.

[8] See id. Return to text.

[9] See London Guidelines for the Exchange of Information on Chemicals in International Trade, U.N. Doc. UNEP/GC.15/9/Add.2/Supp. 3 and Corr.1, Appendix; amended, Governing Council Decision 15/30, U.N. Doc. UNEP/GC. 15/12, Annex II, at 17 (1989) [hereinafter London Guidelines]. Return to text.

[10] See Joint Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World Health Organization Food Standards Program, Codex Alimentarius Commission Procedural Manual (8th ed. 1993) [hereinafter Codex]. Return to text.

[11] See id. at 17. Return to text.

[12] See CSD Says More Action Needed to Blend Environmental Protection, Development, 17 Int'l Envt. Rep. (BNA) 511 (June 15, 1994); Pressure Mounting For United Nations to Mandate Prior Informed Consent Program, 16 Chem. Reg. Rep. (BNA) 2337 (Mar. 5, 1993). Return to text.

[13] See Haider Rizvi, U.S. Companies Continue to Export Banned Pesticides, INTER PRESS SERVICE, GLOBAL INFO. NETWORK, Dec. 8, 1995 at 1, available in 1995 WL 10136181. The pesticides considered dangerous to human health and the environment include: Aldicarb, Camphechlor, Chlordane, Heptachlor, Chlordimeform, DBCP, DDT, Aldrin, Endrin, EDB, HCH/BHC, Lindane, Paraquat, Parathion, Methyl Parathion, PCP, and 2,4,5-T. See id. Return to text.

[14] See id. Return to text.

[15] See id. Return to text.

[16] See id. Other developing countries the U.S. exports the dirty dozen to include India, Zimbabwe, Costa Rica, Thailand, El Salvador and Brazil. The list may be much longer since almost 70% of export shipments are not listed as "hazardous pesticides" in customs records. See id. Return to text.

[17] See J. AGROW, FUTURE TRENDS IN THE AGRIBUSINESS INDUSTRY 140 (1990). The top 15 companies are all based in Western Europe or the U.S., led by Ciba Geigy (Swiss), ICI (UK), Bayer (German) and Rhone Poulenc (French). Others with annual sales above $1 billion include Zeneca, Monsanto, DuPont, Dow, Elanco, BASD, Cyanamid, and AgrEvo. Sumitomo, Sandoz, FMC, and Rohm & Haas all have annual sales below $1 billion. See Luci Young et al., The Pesticide Market and Industry: A Global Perspective, 31(1) BUS. ECON. (Jan. 1, 1996) at 6. Return to text.

[18] See Domestic Pesticide Sales Up, Exports Down, ACPA Reports, PESTICIDE & TOXIC CHEM. NEWS, 23 (37), July 12, 1995, at 1. Return to text.

[19] See Karen A. Goldberg, Efforts to Prevent Misuse of Pesticides Exported to Developing Countries: Progressing Beyond Regulation and Notification, 12 ECOLOGY L.Q. 1025, 1030 (1985). Return to text.

[20] See id. Return to text.

[21] See Pesticides: Export of Unregistered Pesticides Is Not Adequately Monitored By EPA, GAO/RCED-89-128 (Apr. 1989)[hereinafter 1989 GAO Report]. Return to text.

[22] See N. Suresh, Worldview Pesticides: U.S. Exports to Poor Nations Growing Study, AMERICAN POLITICAL NETWORK GREENWIRE, July 10, 1996, at 1. Return to text.

[23] See id.; see also Bitte Hileman, U.S. Exports Unnamed, CHEMICAL & ENG'G NEWS, Mar. 4, 1996. Return to text.

[24] See Roger D. Middlekauff, Pesticide Residues in Food: Legal and Scientific Issues, 42 FOOD DRUG COSM. L.J. 251 (1987). Return to text.

[25] See id. Return to text.

[26] See id. Return to text.

[27] See id. Return to text.

[28] See Jacobo Finkelman et al., Environmental Epidemiology: A Project for Latin American and the Caribbean, in Pan American Center for Human Ecology and Health, Division of Health and Environment, Pan American Health Organization, World Health Organization (1993), at 7; see also Philip Ngunjiri, Environment: Stemming the Flow of Dangerous Chemicals, INTER PRESS SERVICE, GLOBAL INFO. NETWORK, Sept. 24, 1996. Return to text.

[29] See BARBARA DINHAM, THE PESTICIDE HAZARD: A GLOBAL HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT 64 (1993) [hereinafter DINHAM]. Return to text.

[30] See J. Jeyaratnam, Acute Pesticide Poisoning: A Major Global Health Problem, 43 WORLD HEALTH STAT. Q. 143 (1990); see also Robert Repetto & Sanjay S. Baliga, Pesticides and the Immune System: The Public Health Risks, World Resources Institute Executive Summary (Mar. 1996).

Although systematic estimates of overall exposure are not available . . . farm workers, farm households, and consumers are probably exposed to dangerous levels of pesticides. Direct observations of farmers handling, spraying, and disposing of pesticides show that they can be significantly exposed at work. Observations of the way rural households in developing countries store pesticides, prepare food, bathe, obtain drinking water, and come near pesticide spray operations establish that rural household members can also be exposed through various routes. These observations are confirmed by biological measurements of metallic and organochlorine pesticide residues in people's bodies and of acetylcholinester ase enzyme depletion, which indicates exposure to organophosphate pesticides. The presence of persistent bioaccumulative pesticide residues in foods, body tissues, and human breast milk indicate that even consumers far removed from agricultural operation can also be significantly exposed.

[31] See Finkelman et al., supra note 28, at 171-79. Other effects of human exposure to pesticides can range from temporary illness such as excitation, headaches, tremors, blurred vision, cramps, dizziness and vomiting to severe and chronic health problems such as blood diseases, sterility, nerve damage, birth defects and comatose. See id. at 171-79. Return to text.

[32] See Greenpeace Presses Global POPs Ban; PAN Hits U.S. Exports, 23(52) PESTICIDE & TOXIC CHEM. NEWS, Oct. 25, 1995, at 2. Return to text.

[33] See id. Return to text.

[34] See Bruce Selcraig, Costa Rica's Lethal Harvest, 21 INT'L WILDLIFE 20, 22-24 (Nov-Dec. 1991); see generally Matuku A. Mwanthi & Violet N. Kimani, Health Hazards of Pesticides, 11 World Health Forum 430 (1990) (discussing pesticide use in Kenya); Association pour la Sauvegarde De l'Environment et le Development (ASED), Report for the Pesticide Trust (Apr. 14, 1992) (discussing pesticide use in Ecuador). Return to text.

[35] See Sagaris, supra note 1, at C2. Return to text.

[36] See id. Return to text.

[37] See id. Return to text.

[38] See id. Return to text.

[39] See id. Return to text.

[40] See id. Return to text.

[41] See THE PESTICIDES TRUST, THE FAO CODE: MISSING INGREDIENTS 29 (1989). Widespread fish kills were reported in Egyptian irrigation canals, lakes and coastal areas of the Nile because of disposal of left-over pesticides, washing of containers previously holding pesticides and even deliberate use of pesticides for fishing. See id. In the Sudan, hunters used pesticides to kill wild antelope and gazelle by poisoning their water-holes. See id. The meat was subsequently processed and sold for human consumption. See id. Return to text.

[42] See Robert L. Metcalf, Changing Role of Insecticides in Crop Protection, 25 ANN. REV. ENTOMOLOGY 219, 239-40 (1980). Return to text.

[43] See id. at 238. Return to text.

[44] See id. Return to text.

[45] See Agrow, supra note 17, at 147. Return to text.

[46] See id. Return to text.

[47] See RUTH NORRIS, PILLS, PESTICIDES, AND PROFITS 24 (1982). Return to text.

[48] See id. at 19-25. Return to text.

[49] See Meri McCoy-Thompson, Brazil Enlists DDT Against Malaria Outbreak, WORLD WATCH, July-Aug. 1990, at 9. Return to text.

[50] See Gary Gardner, IPM and the War on Pests, WORLD WATCH, Mar. 13, 1996, at 36. Return to text.

[51] See id. Return to text.

[52] See id. Return to text.

[53] The concern for feeding an ever expanding world population is serious. In the 1930's, 6.5 million American farmers each fed 19 people. See National Agricultural Chemicals Association, Environmental Agriculture: 60 Years of Inspiration (1993). The population of the U.S. was roughly 123 million compared to approximately 249 million now. See id. The number of farmers has decreased to only 2.1 million individually supplying food to 129 people. See id. By 2050, estimates are that the world agriculture will have to supply food to more than 11 billion people. See id. Farmers currently cultivate 5.8 million square miles of land (about the size of South America). See id. To meet the needs of the future, 35 million square miles of cropland will be needed, equaling an area the size of North America, South America, Europe and most of Asia. See id. The figures are alarming to those committed to conservation of the natural environment. See id. The challenge to the agro-chemical industry is evident—food staples must triple in output over the next six decades, while reducing any agricultural and environmental impact. See id. Beginning in the 1960's, agro-chemicals, genetically enhanced strains of crops and biotechnology, have produced higher yields of wheat, rice, corn, soy and other staples. However, whether these methods can meet the needs of an exponentially exploding world population is speculative at best. See id. Return to text.

[54] See Faith Halter, Regulating Information Exchange and International Trade in Pesticide and Other Toxic Substances to Meet the Needs of Developing Countries, 12 COLUM. J. ENVTL L. 1, 3-4 (1987). Return to text.

[55] See Bill Lambrecht, Crop Sprays Leave Residue of Ailments, ST. LOUIS POST- DISPATCH, Dec. 12, 1993, at A1. Return to text.

[56] See Johanna Son, Vietnam Agriculture: Farmers Forget Environment, INTER PRESS SERVICE, GLOBAL INFO. NETWORK, Feb. 19, 1996, at 1. Return to text.

[57] See id. Return to text.

[58] See id. at 2. Return to text.

[59] See id. at 2-3 Return to text.

[60] See id. Return to text.

[61] See Greenpeace Presses Global POPs Ban, Pan Hits U.S. Exports, supra note 32. The Pesticide Action Network (PAN) reported the U.S. exported aldicarb, camphechlor, chlordane, heptachlor, chlordimeform, DBCP, DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, EDB, HCH/BHC, lindane, paraquat, parathion, methyl parathion, pentachlorophenol and 2,4,5-T. Aldicarb was registered with the EPA in 1995 for use on potatoes. See id. PAN reports that aldicarb is so toxic that "[o]ne drop . . . absorbed through the skin is enough to kill the average adult." Id. In ad dition, several shampoos sold in the United States for the treatment of hair lice have been found to contain lindane, a substance linked to blood disease, lymphoma, seizures and brain damage. See id. Return to text.

[62] See DAVID WEIR & MARK SCHAPIRO, CIRCLE OF POISON: PESTICIDES AND PEOPLE IN A HUNGRY WORLD 3-4 (1981). Return to text.

[63] See id. Return to text.

[64] See 1989 GAO Report, supra note 21, at 11-12, 25, 36. Return to text.

[65] Id. at 3. The Assistant Administrator for Pesticides and Toxic Substances at EPA acknowledged the deficiencies during his testimony before a U.S. Senate subcommittee in March 1986. See id. at 19. Return to text.

[66] See U.S. Chemical Trade Surplus Sets a New High, CHEMICAL & ENG'G NEWS, June 19, 1989, at 76. Return to text.

[67] See 1989 GAO Report, supra note 21, at 11-12. Return to text.

[68] See id. Return to text.

[69] See Sagaris, supra note 1, at C2. Return to text.

[70] See id. Return to text.

[71] See id. Return to text.

[72] See id. Return to text.

[73] See Cyrus Mehri, Prior Informed Consent: An Emerging Compromise for Hazardous Exports, 21 CORNELL INT'L L.J. 365, 387 (1988). Return to text.

[74] See id. Return to text.

[75] See id. Return to text.

[76] See id. Return to text.

[77] See NATIONAL AGRICULTURE CHEMICAL ASSOCIATION, National Agricultural Chemicals Association Position on the "Prior Consent" Concept of Export Control of Agrichemicals in INT'L TRADE (Nov. 30, 1986) [hereinafter NACA Position Paper]. Return to text.

[78] See id. The London Guidelines suggest a balance between regulation and economics. Specifically, the London Guidelines advise that any "measure to regulate chemicals with a view to protecting . . . the environment, should ensure that regulations and standards for this purpose do not create unnecessary obstacles to international trade." London Guidelines, supra note 9, at 3. See also Mehri, supra note 73, at 387. A 1978 Report from the House Government Operations Committee indicated that 68 percent of the foreign countries surveyed were interested in having the U.S. notify them of chemicals regulated under FIFRA. HOUSE COMM. ON GOV'T OPERATIONS, REPORT ON EXPORT OF PRODUCTS BANNED BY U.S. REGULATORY AGENCIES, H.R. REP. NO. 95-1686, 95th Cong., 2d. Sess. 13-14 (1978). Return to text.

[79] See Janet Raloff, The Pesticide Shuffle, SCIENCE NEWS, Mar. 16, 1996. The practice of manufacturers hiding their identity on exported products to prevent competitors from receiving confidential marketing information is legal in the United States, but presents an obstacle for developing countries and special interest groups trying to expose the risks posed by the careless use of the pesticide. A common illegal practice is masking the identity of the pesticide in customs records. See id. Return to text.

[80] See Report of the Governing Council, U.N. Environment Programme, 14th Sess., Agenda Item 14/27 at 79, U.N. Doc. A/42/25 (1987). At the June 1987 conference, United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Governing Council instructed UNEP to begin developing a system of PIC to supplement the London Guidelines. The draft revisions were completed in February 1989 and subsequently approved by the UNEP Governing Council in May 1989. See U.N. Doc. UNEP/PIC WG.2/L1/Rev.1 (May 25, 1989). Return to text.

[81] See generally London Guidelines, supra note 9. Return to text.

[82] See id. Return to text.

[83] See id. The London Guidelines provide in pertinent part:

1. Definitions

(b) "Banned chemical" means a chemical which has, for health or environmental reasons, been prohibited for all uses by final governmental regulatory action; (c) "Severely restricted chemical" means a chemical for which, for health or environmental reasons, virtually all uses have been prohibited nationally by final government regulatory action, but for which certain specific uses remain authorized;

[84] See id. art. 7. Return to text.

[85] See id. Return to text.

[86] See id. art. 6(a). Return to text.

[87] See id. art. 5.8. Return to text.

[88] See id. art. 5.4. Return to text.

[89] See id. art. 9(c). Return to text.

[90] See id. art. 7.4(a). Return to text.

[91] See id. art 7.4(a). Return to text.

[92] See id. Introduction, para. 2. Return to text.

[93] See id. Introduction, para. 8. Return to text.

[94] See id. Introduction, para. 2. Return to text.

[95] See id. art. 7.4. Return to text.

[96] See id. art. 7.2. Return to text.

[97] See id. Annex II (1)(b)(i). Return to text.

[98] See id. art. 1(h), Annex II-IV. Return to text.

[99] See id. art. 7.3. Return to text.

[100] See id. art. 6(c). Return to text.

[101] See id. art. 1. Return to text.

[102] See id. art. 6. Return to text.

[103] See id. Return to text.

[104] See id. art. 8. Return to text.

[105] See id. art. 14(a). Return to text.

[106] See id art. 2(e). Article (2)(e) of the London Guidelines provides that "[s]tates with more advanced systems for the safe management of chemicals should share their experience with those countries in need of improved systems." Id. Return to text.

[107] See id. art. 15. Return to text.

[108] See id. art. 13. Return to text.

[109] See id. Return to text.

[110] Id. art. 13(d). Return to text.

[111] Id. art. 14(b). Return to text.

[112] Id. art. 7.1(b). Return to text.

[113] See id. art. 7.1(c). Return to text.

[114] See Code of Conduct, supra note 4. Return to text.

[115] See id. art. 1. Return to text.

[116] See id. Return to text.

[117] See id. Return to text.

[118] See id. at 3. UNEP adopted the PIC scheme under the London Guidelines and operates jointly with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) through IRPTC. See London Guidelines, supra note 9, art. 5.2. Return to text.

[119] See Code of Conduct, supra note 4, at 3. Return to text.

[120] See id. at 2. Return to text.

[121] Id. Return to text.

[122] See id. Return to text.

[123] See id. art. 12.1. Return to text.

[124] See id. art. 12.6 Return to text.

[125] See id. art. 6.1.2. Return to text.

[126] See id. art. 5.1.1. Return to text.

[127] See id. art. 6.1.2. Return to text.

[128] See id. art. 6.1.1. Return to text.

[129] See id. art. 6.1.2. Return to text.

[130] Id. art. 1.1. Return to text.

[131] See id. art. 4, 8. Manufacturers are required to assess effects on human health and the environment before introducing a pesticide to a foreign market. See id. art. 4.1.2. Return to text.

[132] See id. art. 3.4, 5.2, 10. The Code expects manufacturers to introduce products in ready-to-use packages that cannot be reused. See id. art. 5.2.2.2. Return to text.

[133] Labels and warnings should be clear and concise with symbols and pictures for the illiterate. See id. art. 10.2. Finally, the labels and warnings are to be written in the language of the importing country. See id. art. 3.4.2. Return to text.

[134] See id. art. 11. Return to text.

[135] See id. art. 10.3. Return to text.

[136] See id. art. 1. Return to text.

[137] See id. art. 3. Return to text.

[138] See id. art. 4.1. Article 4 provides in pertinent part:

Pesticide manufacturers are expected to: make available copies or summaries of the original reports of such tests for assessment by responsible government authorities in all countries where the pesticide is to be offered for sale. Evaluation of the data should be referred to qualified experts; take care to see that the proposed use pattern, label claims and directions, packages, technical literature and advertising truly reflect the outcome of these scientific tests and assessments; provide, at the request of a country, advice on methods for the analysis of any active ingredient of formulation that they manufacture, and provide the necessary analytical standards; provide advice and assistance for training technical staff in relevant analytical work. Formulators should actively support this effort; conduct residue trials prior to marketing in accordance with FAO guidelines on good analytical practice . . . and on crop residue data . . . in order to provide a basis for establishing appropriate maximum residue limits (MRLs).

[139] See id. art. 5. Article 5 provides in pertinent part:

Governments which have not already done so should: keep extension and advisory services, as well as farmers' organizations, adequately informed about . . . the range of pesticide products available for use in each area.

5.2 Even where a control scheme is in operation, industry should: cooperate in the periodic reassessment of the pesticides which are marketed and in providing the poison control centers and other medical practitioners with information about hazards; make every reasonable effort to reduce hazard by: making less toxic formulations available; introducing products in ready-to-use packages and otherwise developing safer and more efficient methods of application; using containers that are not attractive for subsequent reuse and promoting programs to discourage their reuse; using containers that are safe (e.g. not attractive to or easily opened by children), particularly for the more toxic home-use products;

using clear and concise labeling; halt sale, and recall products, when safe use does not seem possible under any use directions or restrictions.

5.3 Government and industry should further reduce hazards by making provision for safe storage and disposal of pesticides and containers at both warehouse and the farm level, and through proper siting and control of wastes from formulating plants.

[140] See id. art. 9. Return to text.

[141] See id. art. 11. Return to text.

[142] See id. art. 3.4.1. Return to text.

[143] See id. art. 3.4.3. Return to text.

[144] See id. art. 4.1.4. Return to text.

[145] Id. art. 5.2.2. Return to text.

[146] Id. art. 5.2.2.5. Return to text.

[147] Id. art. 10.2.1. Return to text.

[148] Id. art. 10.2.2. Return to text.

[149] See id. art. 10.2.3. Return to text.

[150] See id. art. 10.2.4. Return to text.

[151] See id. art. 3.4.1. Return to text.

[152] See id. art. 5.2.2.2. Return to text.

[153] See id. art. 10.4. Return to text.

[154] See id. art. 10.3.2. Return to text.

[155] See DINHAM, supra note 29, at 58. Return to text.

[156] Countries such as Benin, Togo, South Africa, Brazil, Ecuador and India report that illiteracy is a serious problem. See id. Return to text.

[157] See id. Return to text.

[158] See id. Return to text.

[159] Although Kenya's official languages are Standard Swahili and English, there are between 30 and 40 dialects of Swahili. See William Kalmbach, III, International Labeling Requirements for the Export of Hazardous Chemicals: A Developing Nation's Perspective, 19 LAW & POLICY INT'L BUS, 811, 820 (1987). Return to text.

[160] See Bouguerra, GREEN PEACE INTERNATIONAL, REPORT ON ORGANOPHOSPHORUS PESTICIDES IN TUNISIA OVER THE PERIOD 1987-1990 (1990). Return to text.

[161] See FAO Res. 6/89, COAG, Report of the Conference of FAO, 95th Sess., U.N. Doc. C/89/Rep. 120 (1989). Return to text.

[162] See id. at App. E. Return to text.

[163] See Code of Conduct, supra note 4, art. 9.5. Return to text.

[164] See id. Return to text.

[165] See id. art. 9.6 ("Guidelines on the Operation of Prior Informed Consent"). The FAO adopted these provisions on November 21, 1989, prohibiting the pesticide importing country from using the PIC as a trade barrier in order to assist that country's domestic pesticide industry. See id. art. 9.8.2. Return to text.

[166] See DINHAM, supra note 29, at 4. Return to text.

[167] See id. Return to text.

[168] See id. Return to text.

[169] See id. Return to text.

[170] See id. Return to text.

[171] See id. at 17. Return to text.

[172] Code of Conduct, supra note 4, art. 4.1.1. Return to text.

[173] Id. art. 4.1.2. Return to text.

[174] See id. art. 4.1.7. Return to text.

[175] See id. art. 8.1.1. Return to text.

[176] Id. art. 8.1.2. Return to text.

[177] Pesticides included in PIC and candidates for inclusion in 1992:

INCLUDED: aldrin, captafol, chlordane, chlordimeform, cyhexatine, dieldrin, dinoseb, DDT, EDB, fluoroacetamide, HCH (mixed isomers), heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene, mercury compounds, parathion ethyl, phosphides (aluminium and magnesium), toxaphene 2,4,5,-T.

UNDER CONSIDERATION: methamidophos, methomyl, methyl bromide, monocrotophos, paraquat, parathion methyl, phosphamidon.

[178] The European community Member states were the first to implement the Code of Conduct. Effective November 1992, compliance with the PIC provisions of the Code of Conduct became mandatory. See Council Regulation 2455/92, 1992 O.J. (L 251)13 (concerning the export and import of certain dangerous chemicals). Return to text.

[179] United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Conference Resolution 10/85 (Nov. 28, 1985) (Adopting the Code of Conduct), reprinted in 41 Int'l Envt. Rep. (BNA) 3002 (Mar. 11, 1987). Return to text.

[180] See Code of Conduct, supra note 4, at 3. Return to text.

[181] See id. Return to text.

[182] See Charlotte Uram, International Regulation of the Sale and Use of Pesticides, 10 N.W. J. INT'L L. & BUS. 460, 469 (1990). Return to text.

[183] See Code of Conduct, supra note 4, art. 1.2. Return to text.

[184] See id. Return to text.

[185] See id. Introduction, para. 1. Return to text.

[186] See id. Introduction, para 5. Return to text.

[187] Id. Return to text.

[188] See id. Introduction, para 6. Return to text.

[189] See id. Return to text.

[190] See id. Return to text.

[191] See id. Return to text.

[192] See id. Introduction, para. 1; see also London Guidelines, supra note 9, at 1. Return to text.

[193] Two significant conventions should be noted that limit the international trade and movement of hazardous waste: Bamako Convention on the Ban of Import Into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste, 28 I.L.M. 657 (Mar. 22, 1989). Return to text.

[194] See Codex, supra note 10, at 39. Return to text.

[195] See id. Return to text.

[196] See id. Return to text.

[197] See generally id. Return to text.

[198] See id. at 59-60. The primary purpose of setting MRLs for pesticide residues in food, and in some cases animal feeds, is to protect human health. See id at 39. Codex MRLs help to ensure that only the minimum amount of pesticide is applied to food consistent with pest control needs. See id. Codex MRLs are based on residue data from supervised trials and not directly derived from Acceptable Daily Intakes (ADIs). See id. at 60. ADIs are a quantitative expression of acceptable daily amounts of residue that persons may ingest on a long term basis, based on toxicological data from animal studies. See id.

The acceptability of Codex MRLs is based on a comparison between the ADI and suitable intake studies. See id. at 59-60. Intake data from these studies, compared with ADIs, helps to determine the safety of food in relation to pesticide residues. Guidelines for predicting Dietary Intakes of Pesticide Residues have been prepared under the joint sponsorship of UNEP, FAO and WHO. See Joint Food & Agricultural Organization of the United States World Health Organization, Guidelines for Predicting Dietary Intake of Pesticide Residue, 66(4) BULLETIN OF THE WORLD HEALTH ORG. 429-34 (1988). Return to text.

[199] See generally Codex, supra note 10. Return to text.

[200] See id. Return to text.

[201] See id. Return to text.

[202] See id. Return to text.

[203] See id. at 27-55. Return to text.

[204] See id. Return to text.

[205] See id. Return to text.

[206] See id. Return to text.

[207] See id. Return to text.

[208] See id. at 27-55. Return to text.

[209] See id. Return to text.

[210] Id. at 39. Return to text.

[211] See generally id. Return to text.

[212] See id. Return to text.

[213] John P. Frawley, Ph. D., Codex Alimentarius—Food Safety—Pesticides, 42 FOOD DRUG COSM. L.J. 168, 168-69 (1987). Return to text.

[214] The United States is a leader in using alternatives to pesticide application. For example, the Clinton Administration presently promotes the biological pesticide industry's integrated pest management (IPM) system that minimizes chemical harm by using beneficial natural pest enemies. See Ronald Begley, Biopesticides on the Rise, CHEMICAL WEEK, Oct. 27, 1993, at A-4; Philip J. Hilts, White House Moves on Easing Food-Pesticide Law, N.Y. TIMES, Aug. 20, 1993, at A-14. Return to text.

[215] See Greenwood, Restrictions on the Exportation of Hazardous Products to the Third World: Regulatory Imperialism or Ethical Responsibility?, 5 B.C. THIRD WORLD L.J. 129, 148-49 (1985) (recommending an approach to developing binding regulations of chemical trade and discussing the need for U.S. leadership). Return to text.

[216] See U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census (FT900-E) (Dec. 1993). Return to text.

[217] U.S. Chemical Trade Falls but Remains Key to Growth, CHEMICAL MKTG. REP., Feb. 14, 1994, at 7. Return to text.

[218] Caroline Cox & Norman Grier, Is EPA Registration a Guarantee of Pesticide Safety?, J. OF PESTICIDE REFORM, Spring 1992, at 10. Return to text.

[219] See id. at 6. Return to text.

[220] Although Congress has often attempted to enact legislation controlling American chemical exports, these attempts have been unsuccessful. See S. 898, 102d Cong. (1991); H.R. 2083, 102d Cong. (1991); S. 2227, 99th Cong. (1990); H.R. 6587, 96th Cong. (1980). Return to text.

[221] Circle of Poison: Impact on American Consumers, Hearing Before the Comm. on Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry, U. S. Senate, 102d Cong. (1991) (referring to CARL SMITH & SHELLEY BECKMANN, EXPORT OF PESTICIDES FROM U.S. PORTS IN 1990 1 (Foundation for Advancements in Science and Education 1991). Return to text.

[222] See Smith & Beckmann, supra note 221, at 2. Return to text.

[223] Id. Return to text.

[224] See id. Return to text.

[225] Id. Return to text.

[226] Janet Raloff, The Pesticide Shuffle, 149(11) SCIENCE NEWS 1 (Mar. 16, 1996). Return to text.

[227] See 7 U.S.C. § 136 (1988 & Supp. V. 1993). Return to text.

[228] See id. § 136a(a). Return to text.

[229] See id. § 136a(c). Return to text.

[230] See id. § 136a(c)(5). Return to text.

[231] See id. § 136a(c)(2)(A). Return to text.

[232] See id. § 136(bb). Return to text.

[233] Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, Pub. L. No. 75-717, 52 Stat. 1040 (1938), amended by 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-393 (1988); see 40 C.F.R. §§ 152.112, 152.113, 152.114 (1991). Return to text.

[234] See Regulation of Pesticides in Food: Addressing the Delaney Paradox Policy Statement, 53 Fed. Reg. 41,104, 41,105 (1988). Return to text.

[235] See 7 U.S.C. § 136(p)- (q); see also 45 Fed. Reg. 50,274 (1980). Return to text.

[236] See 7 U.S.C. § 136o. FIFRA § 17(a)(1) states that an exported pesticide is mislabeled if there is no registration number, misrepresentation of the identity of the pesticide, absence of warning statements or absence of ingredients, weight and use restrictions. See id. § 136o(a)(1). Return to text.

[237] See id. § 136o. Return to text.

[238] See id. § 136o(b). Return to text.

[239] See id. Return to text.

[240] See 40 C.F.R. § 168.75(b)(3) (1996). Return to text.

[241] See 40 C.F.R. § 168.65(b)(4) (1997). Return to text.

[242] See id. § 168.65(c). Return to text.

[243] See id. Return to text.

[244] Id. § 168.65(c)(2). Return to text.

[245] Id. § 168.65(a). Return to text.

[246] See id. § 168.65(b)(4)(i). Return to text.

[247] Compare 40 C.F.R. § 168.65(a) with 40 C.F.R. § 168.65(c). Return to text.

[248] 40 C.F.R. §168.65(c). Return to text.

[249] See James H. Colopy, Poisoning the Developing World: The Exportation of Unregistered and Severely Restricted Pesticides from the United States, 13 J. ENVTL. L. 167, 191 (1995). Return to text.

[250] See U.S. GAO, Pesticides: Better Sampling and Enforcement Needed on Imported Food , 12-14, GAO/RCED-86-219 (Sept. 16, 1986) [hereinafter 1986 GAO Report]. Chlordane and Heptachlor, manufactured by Velsicol Chemical Corp. in Memphis, TN, are two examples of chemicals suspected to be carcinogenic. See Michael Satchell, A Vicious 'Circle of Poison', U.S. NEWS & WORLD REP., June 10, 1991, at 32. Although 48 countries, including the United States, have restricted or banned agricultural use of the chemicals, Velsicol exports between 1.5 to 2.0 million pounds a year. See id. In 1990, the two pesticides were detected on fish imported into the United States from Canada, Argentina and Norway, rice from Pakistan, mushrooms from France, squash from Mexico and chilies from Thailand. See id. Americans annually consume approximately 135 billion pounds of produce, over 25% of which is imported. See id. The FDA says that one percent of imported products are tested even though five percent are admittedly contaminated. See id. Return to text.

[251] See 1986 GAO Report, supra note 250, at 1. Return to text.

[252] See id. at 2. Return to text.

[253] See id. at 3. Return to text.

[254] See id. at 22. Return to text.

[255] See Pesticides: 30 Years Since Silent Spring—Many Long-standing Concerns Remain (GAO/T-RCED-92-77) (July 23, 1992). Return to text.

[256] Id. at 1-2. Return to text.

[257] See Highlights, 7 INT'L ENVT. REP. (BNA) 296 (July 13, 1983) (citing testimony of Don Clay, Acting Assistant Administrator for EPA's Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Before the House Agric. Subcomm. on Dept. Operations, Research, and Foreign Agric. (June 9, 1983)). Return to text.

[258] See id. Return to text.

[259] See id. Return to text.

[260] See 21 U.S.C. §§ 301-94 (1997). Return to text.

[261] See 21 U.S.C. § 346a (1994). Return to text.

[262] See id. § 301 (1994). Return to text.

[263] See id. Return to text.

[264] See id. Return to text.

[265] Id. § 346a(b). Return to text.

[266] Id. § 348(c)(3)(A). This provision is known as the "Delaney Clause." Return to text.

[267] See Petitions Proposing Tolerances or Exemptions for Pesticide Residues in or on Raw Agricultural Commodities, 40 C.F.R. §180.7 (1990). Return to text.

[268] See Long-Awaited Reform Bills Released, Daily Rep. for Executives (BNA), Apr. 28, 1994, at A80. Return to text.

[269] See id. Return to text.

[270] See id. Return to text.

[271] See id. Return to text.

[272] See John H. Cushman, Clinton Proposes Revising Pesticide Regulations, N.Y. TIMES, April 27, 1994, at A12. After opposition from virtually all sides of the issue, the Clinton adminis tration modified the bill to permit shipment of an unregistered pesticide if it was registered in at least three OECD countries and to provide $4 million to promote product stewardship in developing countries. The funding would have been provided from a tax on exported pesticides at the rate of one cent per pound. One day before hearings began, the stewardship program was eliminated and unregistered pesticides could be exported if any three countries with "credible pesticide regulatory programs" registered it. Pesticides: Food Safety Reform Top Priority, BNA Daily Rep., Jan. 25, 1994. Return to text.

[273] See Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-170, 110 Stat. 1489 (1996). Return to text.

[274] See 7 U.S.C. § 136o(a) (1994). Return to text.

[275] See id. Return to text.

[276] See id. § 136o(b). Return to text.

[277] See id. Return to text.

[278] See 40 C.F.R. § 169.2(h) (1997). Return to text.

[279] See id. Return to text.

[280] See 15 U.S.C. § 2611(a)(2) (1997). Return to text.

[281] See id. § 2611(b)(1). Return to text.

[282] See id. § 2611(a)(1)(B). Return to text.

[283] Id. § 2611(a)(2). The EPA Administrator has discretionary authority to test and determine which chemicals pose an "unreasonable risk" to human health or the environment. See id. Return to text.

[284] See id. Return to text.

[285] See Comptroller General of the United States, Report to the Congress: Better Regulation of Pesticide, Exports and Pesticide Residues in Imported Food is Essential, 1, 11-12 GAO/CED-79-43 (June 22, 1979). Return to text.

[286] See id. Return to text.

[287] See generally U.S. GAO Report, Pesticides: Better Sampling and Enforcement Needed on Imported Food, 32 GAO/RCED-86-219 (Sept. 1986). Return to text.

[288] See Resources, Community and Economic Development Division, U.S. GAO, Pesticides: Need to Enhance FDA's Ability to Protect the Public from Illegal Residues, 2 GAO/RCED-87-7 (Oct. 1986). Return to text.

[289] See Pesticides: 30 Years Since Silent Spring—Many Long-standing Concerns Remain, Testimony Before the Subcomm. on Envt. & Nat. Resources, 1(6) GAO/T-RCED-92-77) (July 23, 1992) (Statement of Peter Guerraro, Assoc. Dir., Envt'l Protection Issues, Resources, Commu nity, and Econ. Dev. Div., U.S. GAO). Return to text.

[290] See Resources, Community & Econ. Dev. Div., U.S. GAO, Pesticide Reregistration May Not be Completed, 2 GAO/RCED-93-94 (May 21, 1993). Return to text.

[291] See id. Return to text.

[292] See id. Return to text.

[293] See id. Return to text.

[294] See Pesticide Program, FDA, Residue Monitoring—1993, 4 (1994). Return to text.

[295] See id. Return to text.

[296] See id. Return to text.

[297] Food Safety: Changes Needed to Minimize Unsafe Chemicals in Food, GAO/RCED-94-192 (Sept. 1994) [hereinafter 1994 GAO Report]. Return to text.

[298] See id. at 19. Return to text.

[299] See id. at 49. Return to text.

[300] See id. Return to text.

[301] See id. at 50. Return to text.

[302] See id. at 23. Return to text.

[303] See 1994 GAO Report, supra note 297, at 23. Return to text.

[304] See id. at 24. Return to text.

[305] See id. Return to text.

[306] See Gary Gardner, IPM and the War on Pests, 9(2) WORLD WATCH 36 (Mar. 13, 1996). Return to text.

[307] See Testimony of William D. Gullickson, Chairman Chemical Producers & Distributors Ass'n, House Agric. Dept. Operations and Nutrition Pesticides and FIFRA, Before the Subcomm. on Dept. Operations and Nutrition, June 15, 1994. Return to text.